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What happens when men feel they aren’t masculine enough? A new social psychological study shows that many men experience masculinity as an insecure status that needs to be constantly reaffirmed. This pressure is not a negligeable phenomenon, but rather has measurable and consistent effects on men’s emotions, self-image, attitudes, and behavior. The consequences are tangible for men themselves, their social circles, and society as a whole. For example, this can be reflected in support for authoritarian, right-wing parties.
A research team led by Lea Lorenz of the RPTU University Kaiserslautern-Landau and Sven Kachel of the University of Kassel conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis published in the journal Personality and Social Psychology Review. The team examined how men react to situations in which their masculinity is called into question. To this end, the team systematically organized and analyzed 123 experiments predominantly from Western countries involving 19,448 men. For their analysis, the researchers distinguished between triggers, internal responses (such as emotions), and compensatory reactions (such as overtly stereotypical masculine behavior). They also considered situational characteristics that influence the effect. This allowed them to calculate the average strength of the effect and identify the conditions that amplify it.
Across all the analyzed studies, a clear, reliable effect emerges: When men doubt their masculinity, it measurably alters their emotions, self-image, behavior, and attitudes. While not extremely large, the effect is robust and detectable under many conditions. "The effects are surprisingly strong when men conclude that they do not conform to the masculine ideal – stronger than when they receive external feedback," explains Sven Kachel. "Especially when others are present, the pressure to present oneself as masculine increases." According to the research team, previous studies have not yet systematically distinguished whether men arrive at this conclusion themselves or whether it is imposed from the outside.
The results of the meta-analysis support two central approaches in social psychology: the precarious manhood theory, which states that masculinity can easily be lost and must be constantly reaffirmed; and social identity theory, which states that people pay close attention to how their group membership is evaluated.
From risk-taking to aggression
If men feel they do not live up to the masculine ideal, it puts noticeable pressure on them. According to the study, experiences of threat often lead to short-term emotional distress, including anxiety, stress, discomfort, or anger. Externally, these men often react with attitudes and behaviors intended to emphasize masculinity and mitigate the perceived threat. These behaviors include risk-taking, aggression, disparaging other groups, and stronger endorsement of traditional, male-dominated social structures. Examples include advocating for traditional gender roles, sexually harassing women, and denying rights to sexual minorities. In the long term, however, such behavior often harms the men themselves, according to the research team. For example, it can lead to risky or particularly tough behavior.
The analyzed studies also reveal physical stress responses. These include increased release of the stress hormone cortisol and a change in heart rate variability due to internal tension, which prevents the body from adapting effectively to stress.
Triggers range from "atypical behavior" to the loss of traditional male roles
Another finding of the study is that men feel their masculinity is threatened when they are told they are less assertive, dominant, or "masculine" than others. They may also experience these reactions when they find themselves to be subordinate to a woman who clearly takes the lead or when they are expected to perform tasks considered "unmanly."
Threats can also arise at the group level, such as when societal developments challenge traditional roles. This can occur through statements claiming that men have become "increasingly feminine" over time or that there are no longer clear differences between heterosexual and gay men.
Social consequences: From discrimination to political hardline stances
"Our study results have social relevance," emphasizes Lea Lorenz. Threats to masculinity can burden men and have negative effects on their environment. For example, it can promote aggressive, risky, or discriminatory behavior. It can also shift voting behavior toward hardline, authoritarian politics.
"Understanding when such threats arise and what intensifies or mitigates them can help reduce conflicts, discrimination, and social tensions," Lorenz summarizes.
RPTU University Kaiserslautern-Landau
Social Psychology Group
Lea Lorenz
+49 (0)6341 280-31213
lea.lorenz@rptu.de
"Masculinity Threat in Heterosexual Men: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research with Recommendations for Future Theory Building and Research Practice." In: Personality and Social Psychology Review.
DOI: 10.1177/10888683261433109
https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683261433109
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