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Whether in Belgium, Poland, or Ukraine, when asked about their nation's role under Nazi occupation, many Europeans today primarily see their own population as victims – or as heroes. This is the key finding of a cross-national study based on an online survey with 5,474 participants from eight European countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, and Ukraine.
International study reveals how people across Europe reinterpret their nation's role during the Nazi era
Whether in Belgium, Poland, or Ukraine, when asked about their nation's role under Nazi occupation, many Europeans today primarily see their own population as victims – or as heroes. This is the key finding of a cross-national study led by Dr. Fiona Kazarovytska from the Department of Social and Legal Psychology at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU), Germany. Together with Professor Roland Imhoff from JGU and Professor Gilad Hirschberger from Reichman University, Israel, she published the results in the journal Political Psychology.
The researchers conducted an online survey with 5,474 participants from eight European countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, and Ukraine. Designed to be representative in terms of age and gender, the sample offered insights into how people today represent the role of their own population under Nazi occupation. Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement – on a scale from 1 to 7 – with statements such as "Most of the people in my country actively fought against the Nazis" and "The population mistreated the Jews because they faced death if they refused."
A shared pattern of memory
"Despite historical differences, we see a strikingly similar picture across all countries," said Dr. Fiona Kazarovytska. "People tend to view their own population as 'victim-heroes' – individuals who suffered under Nazi rule while simultaneously resisting it with courage." The belief that collaboration happened out of fear or coercion is also widespread.
However, historical records clearly show that governments or segments of the population in many countries actively cooperated with the Nazi occupiers – whether by providing bureaucratic support for deportations, enacting antisemitic legislation, or directly participating in acts of violence. In today's collective memory, by contrast, voluntary and ideologically driven collaboration plays a far smaller role than narratives of victimhood and resistance.
Psychological mechanisms shape collective memory
This is the first study to systematically and empirically examine how people in eight European countries morally evaluate their nation's historical role under Nazi occupation. By focusing on lay people's perceptions rather than state narratives or official memorial culture, it offers novel insight into the psychological mechanisms that shape collective remembrance. Central to this is how individuals morally position their nation and the role of national identity in historical interpretation.
Similar psychological patterns, such as the tendency to reduce moral discomfort by emphasizing coercion or resistance, are well-documented in research on the German population. This new study shows that such morally absolving narratives are also widespread in other European societies.
Recasting the past to protect national identity
Why do so many people present their nation's past in a more positive light than facts support? "It's a psychological coping strategy to protect national identity," explained Kazarovytska. Confronting morally troubling aspects of one's own history can be deeply unsettling. "Admitting guilt or complicity is hard to reconcile with a positive sense of self." As a result, many turn to narratives that downplay moral ambiguity and recast the past in more positive terms.
The findings of the study shed new light on how national memory cultures are shaped – not only by historical facts, but also by deep-seated psychological needs. They reveal how powerfully the desire for moral integrity shapes collective remembrance – even when it contradicts historical records.
Pictures:
https://download.uni-mainz.de/presse/02_kazarovytska_fiona.jpg
Dr. Fiona Kazarovytska of the JGU Department of Social and Legal Psychology, junior fellow of the Gutenberg Academy Fellows Program (GAFP) of Mainz University
© Fiona Kazarovytska
https://download.uni-mainz.de/presse/02_psychologie_erinnerungskultur_historisch...
This chart illustrates how people in eight European countries recall their nation's role during World War II. In most cases, citizens are seen as victims or reluctant collaborators. Voluntary collaboration is rarely acknowledged.
ill./©: Fiona Kazarovytska
Dr. Fiona Kazarovytska
Department of Social and Legal Psychology
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
55099 Mainz
phone: +49 6131 39-21106
e-mail: fiona.kazarovytska@uni-mainz.de
https://www.sozrepsy.uni-mainz.de/fiona-kazarovytska-m-sc/
F. Kazarovytska, R. Imhof, G. Hirschberger, Beyond victimhood and perpetration: Reconstruction of the ingroup's historical role in eight Eastern and Western European countries under Nazi occupation, Political Psychology 46: 4, 11 July 2025,
DOI: 10.1111/pops.13037
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pops.13037
F. Kazarovytska, Identity protection and collective (non-)remembrance (Dissertation), 2024,
DOI: 10.25358/openscience-11822
http://doi.org/10.25358/openscience-11822
This chart illustrates how people in eight European countries recall their nation's role during Worl ...
Quelle: ill./©: Fiona Kazarovytska
Dr. Fiona Kazarovytska of the JGU Department of Social and Legal Psychology, junior fellow of the Gu ...
Quelle: © Fiona Kazarovytska
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